A monograph on the forests above 2600 m altitude, viz. the upper belt of tropical evergreen upper montane forest (2700-3400 m) consisting mainly of conifers and tree Rhododendron, and subalpine forests (3400-3700 m) consisting mainly of birch (Betula utilis), juniper (Juniperus recurva) and Rhododendron. The major stand types are described, according to their structural characteristics, with particular reference to the human influence on them. Aspects of forest utilization discussed include: use of Tsuga dumosa or (preferably) Abies spectabilis timber for roofing shingles; fuelwood collection - hardwood, especially from oak (Quercus semecarpifolia etc.) and Rhododendron spp., is preferred to softwood; charcoal manufacture (the most commonly used species, based on information from villagers, are Q. semecarpifolia, Q. lamellosa, R. arboreum and also T. dumosa); band girdling, or bark stripping from one side only, of A. spectabilis and T. dumosa, for collection of bark (mainly used for shelter); papermaking (from Daphne papyracea/D. bholua bark); leaf fodder, mainly lopped from Q. semecarpifolia; bamboo cutting (Arundinaria maling is an important source of materials); hunting (particularly of musk deer [Moschus chrysogaster leucogaster]); migratory pastoralism, with a description of (1) systems, viz. chauri (hybrids of yak and lowland cattle) husbandry, transhumance of mixed livestock and transhumance of sheep and goats and (2) effects on the forest (including a description of 'goths', i.e. shelters, made using various materials from Rhododendron spp. etc.); minor uses of A. spectabilis (twirling-sticks to churn milk and separate the cream are made from the crown, and 6-m poles are used to display prayer flags); and religious uses of J. recurva foliage (for incense) and branches. Although the forests are above the upper limits of permanent settlements and fields, they are under severe pressure from uncontrolled use, manifesting itself locally in the loss of forest cover, primarily at the upper forest limit, as a result of overgrazing and fire (associated with migratory pastoralism). Accelerated soil erosion is often the consequence. Selective felling of conifers may lead to the formation of pure Rhododendron stands. The absence of viable regrowth in closed stands can be only partly explained by human influence. Human influence has applied over a long period, and the forests cannot be classed as natural. In an ecological appraisal of the high-altitude forests, the human population should be considered an integrated part of the ecosystem.